Living With Autonomous Vehicles in the City

Abstract

This article is a snapshot of unfolding research on connected autonomous renewable energy vehicles (CAREV) and the city. Autonomous vehicle films, animation and literature form the context of this research and provide a history that parallels the reality of cities dominated by fossil fuel vehicles. Rather than the industry simply swapping human drivers for vehicles operated by algorithms, this article challenges the autonomous vehicle industry to realise an aspirational version of vehicle autonomy, one that is magical, safe, efficient, convenient, reliable, just, sustainable, synthetically intelligent and integrated with the city.

A system of connected autonomous vehicles (CAV) and the city should be one that improves liveability and environmental outcomes in addition to safety. This research suggests that an ethical environmental and social justice framework is required to facilitate a transformation to a more liveable city through CAREV technologies. To achieve this revolution, dialogue and collaboration which incorporates the community, designers, artists, manufacturers, policy makers, activists, lawyers, designers, technologists, urbanists, and members of other related disciplines is required at all stages of development. This is a complex field that requires multilayered interdisciplinary approaches.

A critical step is to clarify the vision for CAREV and an associated synthetically intelligent city. Our objective is to expand the discussion about a future vision for this technology to benefit society and improve the liveability and environmental qualities of cities. The PhD research is undertaken by project and explores semiotics1, spatialites and rights to the city through interdisciplinary methods and architectural media including drawings, animations and photography.

About the Author

Colin Polwarth RAIA, is the director of Studio Colin Polwarth PL, an award-winning transdisciplinary practice based in Sydney. Colin has been involved in the design and construction of some of Australia’s largest urban design projects. He leverages his practice experience with the Royal College of Art, London (RCA) expertise in interdisciplinary design, architecture and intelligent mobility for his PhD by project.

Email: colpol@studiocolpol.com.au Organisational Website URL: http://www.studiocolpol.com.au T +61403241115

A SELECTIVE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES

This article investigates how cities2 could be positively transformed via a speculative advanced transportation system. Twentieth century philosophy has explored themes of autonomous vehicles through science fiction in literature, film, and animation. An appreciation of the social and cultural history of the idea of autonomous vehicles provides a rich source of information that current academic and industry research into autonomous vehicles tends to overlook in their claim to technological ‘novelty’.

In this context, film is arguably a site of rehearsal for a current realities or future scenarios. Our film history is alive with autonomous vehicles; there are at least forty major English-language films featuring autonomous vehicles. One of the earliest autonomous vehicle animations is the characterful black and white stop motion animation of an anthropomorphised vehicle ‘The new car’3 by Ub Iwerks in 1931. In Batman4 (1966) there is one of the first autonomous vehicles in the form of the ‘batmobile’. In I, Robot5 (2004), a film noteworthy for containing philosophical discourse by Isaac Asimov6 on robotic consciousness, there is also a sleek black autonomous vehicle. Who could forget the erratic ‘Herbie’, the emotional vehicle in The Love Bug7, and aren’t we all still trying to forget ‘KITT’ from Knight Rider8, to name just a few iconic autonomous vehicles? These films represent a significant cultural investment in envisioning future technologies and the environments in which they operate. Our cultural literature has arguably set social expectations about this technology and how it could change the city and our lives.

Steven Spielberg created an expansive dystopian autonomous vehicle city with a stellar interdisciplinary team to produce Minority Report9 (2002). The conceptual consultants supporting Spielberg included architectural and set luminaries such as the former Dean of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Architecture William J. Mitchell, author of Reinventing the Automobile10. Minority Report’s interdisciplinary team were a necessity for the film maker to explore the visualisation of this technology at a city scale, a method that reiterates the significance of interdisciplinary work. Interdisciplinary methods are at the core of this research.

Classical literature has also explored a variety of autonomous vehicles. Flying autonomous vehicles are seen in the Vimana reliefs in the UNESCO World Heritage Site Ellora Caves11 in India dating to ~1000 BC. The Koran12 and the Talmud13 have strong references to autonomous vehicles. Antonie Galland’s 1704 version of Aladdin’s flying carpet, perhaps one of the most magical of the speculative autonomous vehicles, is found in One Thousand and One Nights14 and was later animated by Disney15 in Aladdin (1992).

VIMANA REIMAGINED

These classical depictions of autonomous vehicles are part of humanity’s cultural desire for a magical transport system. A Google Scholar search on ‘community perceptions of autonomous vehicles’ reveal some 170,000 articles on the subject. A search on ‘autonomous vehicles’ reveals up to 1.4 million articles, a measure of the academic and industry interest in the subject. Few, if any, of these scholarly publications investigate historic speculative works on autonomous vehicles, the city, the social history and this technologies influence on society.

CURRENT RESEARCH CONTEXT AND THE ISSUES OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES AND THE CITY

After a century of impact on cities and communities from fossil fuel vehicles, and the 1.2 million16 deaths and a similar number of major injuries on the road annually because of human-induced vehicle accidents, an advanced vehicle becomes a necessity. The global motor vehicle industry is estimated to generate nine trillion U.S. dollars by 203017. The industry has a reputation for global pollution scandals18, financial corruption19 and safety scandals. Historically communities protest the effects of congestion, sprawl, pollution and reduced well-being in urban contexts. The fossil fuel motor vehicle (including electric vehicles not powered by renewable sources) is almost ubiquitous across the globe, and substantially contributes to the production of greenhouse gasses (by approximately 15-20% according to IPCC), with significant effects on climate change and air pollution. It is not surprising that a very different, even transforming alternative to the fossil fuel vehicle is desired by the global community.

The motor vehicle counter-movement of pedestrianisation, car bans and public and active transport activism is well established in contemporary society and has been since before the 1950s when Jane Jacobs and Robert Moses had their watershed phase in New York’s road-system debate. These polemical arguments, about the balance of traffic through-put and the impacts of road widening on communities, are a complex spatial field and highly charged area of urban discourse. The arguments are confounded by many contested areas of urban development, some almost uncontrollable, such as population growth, consumerism, and economics. Ironically, some urban residents, even the most active transport-oriented urbanists, are dependent on vehicles and variously become passengers or drivers or users. It is a complex, paradoxical field in which to conduct research on a future technology.

Globally there are many autonomous vehicle operations in ports20, railways21, planes, and agricultural22, education23, mining24 and military25 settings. Few of these autonomous vehicles can operate safely in the unpredictable environment of the public realm. Operation in cities in a safe and culturally responsive manner is a challenge that is proving difficult for vehicle manufacturers to achieve. Hubristic manufacturers are already selling the technology before safety standards have been proven, resulting in deaths26. Society will inevitably lose faith in this scandal-ridden industry27 if the process is not carefully designed and implemented with social license. There has been considerable investment in vehicle autonomy28 by industry, governments and academia; the EU estimates that the autonomous vehicle industry was the fourth largest growth area in the EU in 202029.

CONSUMPTION AND PLANNED OBSOLESCENCE IN THE VEHICLE INDUSTRY AND QUESTIONS

The motor vehicle industry introduces new technology through annualised evolution, marketing and incremental change30. This system, called planned obsolescence and conceptualised by Harley Earl31 in the 1930s, is an inherently consumerist and capitalist agenda. Planned obsolescence, by commercial motivation, precludes the involvement of the public in decision making and the consequent impacts on the city. It appears that the rhythms of planned obsolescence have little or no relationship with the rhythms of the city32, lifestyles or infrastructure.

The vehicle industry is currently incrementally introducing automated vehicle technologies such as lane following and brake assist. This will evolve through stages of planned obsolescence until full automation is reached. Full automation, as classified by the Society of Automotive Engineers33 (SAE), is Level 5.This is defined as not requiring human control over driving, or, as it is more commonly known, ‘driverless’.

My research argues that the SAE automation classification falls short of cultural expectations for vehicle autonomy. The SAE classification appears to not have considered levels of autonomy that are inspired, intuitive and emotional, and that, importantly, perhaps ‘magical’ enough to reach a limitless level of autonomy. Critically, the SAE classification ignores the integration of the autonomous vehicles into our cities and our lives. It also miserably fails at describing a vision for more liveable and sustainable environmental outcomes. The SAE perhaps do not have urban designers on their teams, as urban designers do not have vehicle manufacturers on their teams; the silos of specialisation create barriers to knowledge. Therefore, interdisciplinary collaboration is an important aspect of designing this technology for the future.

Many urbanists contend that cars should be banned, investment focused on public transport and city centres pedestrianised. I advocate for being more deeply involved in the design and operational aspects of vehicles, to improve outcomes for the city. We can and will continue to ban vehicles and pedestrianise, but the vehicle is an important economic tool on which large sectors, including minority groups in the community, depend. Roads form the structure of cities and vehicles are likely to continue to be vital parts of urban life. Could we try to find an alternative path to transform road transport? If we, the community, set frameworks at ‘aspirational’, rather than ‘driverless’, this could be pathway to realise  better road transport futures.

Surprisingly, the definition of a connected autonomous vehicle and how it differs from a driverless or autonomous vehicle is not clear or agreed. For the purposes of this article connected autonomous vehicles (CAV) are a system of vehicle-to-vehicle and city-connected technologies that utilise advanced synthetic intelligence as the transport modality which society trusts. CAREV are a city-integrated system that is environmentally sustainable, safe for human interaction, resilient and efficient. An autonomous vehicle (AV) is not one which makes its own rules or redefines road rules; on the contrary, the rules are made by acts of governments and the vehicles operate strictly according to those rules. Vehicle autonomy is found in the ability to apply a synthetic intelligence with logistical and technical safety qualities. In a CAREV city, the way we and other agents communicate with the vehicles will require a complete re-thinking of city sign systems as we learn to live with these advanced vehicles.

CAV COMMUNICATIONS IN THE CITY

Significantly, CAV will reciprocally share sensory data with the city, allowing the vehicles to ‘see around corners’ and predict future conditions, and to respond accordingly. In this integrated system the city is also able to logistically choreograph traffic patterns and movement.

A CALL FOR INTERGENERATIONAL JUSTICE THROUGH CONNECTED AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES

There are multiple stakeholders in this intensely political field. To ensure the vehicles of the future meet our cultural aspirations, improve the environment and our cities and are suited to our lifestyles, will require the active involvement of a diversity of voices that consider intergenerational justice34.

A future CAREV fleet35 provides an opportunity to design an integrated system that is a leap beyond the ‘smart city’ concept, one that has multiple benefits for the city and surrounding regions36. The interaction between humans and vehicles in cities could be a major component of improving liveability and the cultural expression of society through synthetic intelligence37. It is likely that a CAV city will require mass data systems enabled by super or quantum computing.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF CONNECTED AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND RECLAIMING THE CITY

How could we achieve spatial and environmental justice through CAREV? How would that beneficially change urban patterns and liveability? Commercially renewable manufacturing38 and operational systems39 are being demonstrated by Tesla, and society should pressure the whole industry to follow. Opportunities to achieve improved environmental outcomes globally in the road-based transport sector will require substantive policy initiatives. One such initiative could be a reduction in vehicle size as a spatial justice initiative. Most human driven vehicles driven in Australia have three empty seats40; this is simply wasteful and a huge ongoing environmental drain. Questions arise about how CAV impacts on commodification and the effects of the technology on capitalism? There is extensive research globally on the digitization of the public realm, surveillance capitalism issues that are inherent in automation and the digitization of the public realm. Reclaiming the city for people, which is a priority, may become difficult if connected autonomous vehicles swarm the public realm through planned obsolesce or worse through an increased commodification of the public realm by the technology.

ABSTRACTED CAV COMMUNICATION IN THE CITY DIAGRAM

Accepting that smaller vehicles are more environmentally beneficial and lead to better social outcomes will require cultural and legislative change. Several renowned vehicle design publications such as Mitchell41, Burns42 and Harrow43 argue that a smaller vehicle has significant energy consumption benefits. Authors such as Rodrigue44 and Wadud et al.45 suggest that CAV will have energy consumption benefits through operation of the technology. Spatially, smaller vehicles increase flexibility and accessibility; my initial research indicates multiple significant spatial benefits would arise through implementation of a fleet of small-sized CAREV, this research is ongoing. In this scenario one of the challenges for industry would be to design smaller vehicles that are commercially desirable.

Peter Newman and Isabella Jennings46 set out eight characteristics for sustainable societies. They include good health, zero waste, self-regulation, resilience and self-renewing, flexible, ethical, psychologically fulfilling, and coexisting requirements. Along with the United Nations 17 Goals47 for sustainability and circular48 economy principles would assist in redefining the way society deals with extraction and consumption. Defining similar principles for a future transport modality like CAREV would provide city policy makers and vehicle manufacturers with a shared vision and common goals.

LEADERSHIP, POLICIES, THE INTELLIGENT CITY AND CONNECTED AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES

There are several interrelated questions which require answers through the research process. How will we live together with artificially intelligent autonomous vehicles? Will this technology make our cities healthier, more liveable, safe and convenient, and improve environmental outcomes? How is a future synthetically intelligent city different from contemporary cities? How do we ensure that future road-based transport systems are aesthetically pleasing? Is it possible to set up frameworks or polices to ensure future transport modalities such as CAREV improve road-based transportation systems and inter-modalities?

Accepting that the vehicle industry’s model of planned obsolescence is likely to continue, global policies are required to ensure that cities and the people within them have a road-based transport that is environmentally sustainable and culturally appropriate; that is, it meets the aspirational characteristics of a system that is magical, safe, efficient, convenient, reliable, just, sustainable, synthetically intelligent and integrated with the city. Our historic literature has established these aspirations. The era of vehicle and traffic planning dominance can be part of a planned obsolescence.

A designed system has to be better than the industry slowly evolving a vehicle into something that is ‘driverless’; we, our society and cities, deserve more. We need to set ambitious goals for the vehicles of the future and their integration with the public realm, to ensure cities develop into better places. The industry and policy makers would be well-advised to ensure that this technology responds to society’s yearnings, as expressed through its literatures of vision, for an astounding solution for the autonomous vehicle city of the future. We have an exciting opportunity, now, to collaboratively design an environmentally and socially aspirational system for the future. A system that future generations will appreciate for the realisation of positive influences on the environment, increased accessibility, rights to the city, spatially just, choregraphed logistics and safe for everybody.

Key Words: connected autonomous renewable energy vehicles, the synthetically intelligent city, environmental semiotics and communications.

Tags: Policy / Strategy paper

Acknowledgements

PhD senior supervisor Dr Jon Goodbun (RCA School of Architecture) https://www.rca.ac.uk/more/staff/dr- jon-clendenning-goodbun/ and co-supervisor Dr Artur Mausbach (RCA Intelligent Mobility Design Centre) https://www.rca.ac.uk/more/staff/dr-artur-grisanti-mausbach/. Supervisor comments have been incorporated into this article. Colin’s RCA profile is http://www.rca.ac.uk/research-innovation/research-degrees/research- students/colin-polwarth/ . Ongoing PhD research can be found on www.transfigcav.com.au.

Notes & References

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NOTES

1 Semiotics in this PhD research is the study of signs, symbols, and signification including the Language of Thought (LoT) and human to machine communications in the city. For LoT see Susan Schneider, The Language of Thought: A New Philosophical Direction by Susan Schneider (USA: Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2011).

2 ‘The city’ in this article refers to large, dense, permanent, heterogeneous, and politically autonomous settlement whose diverse population engages in a range of occupations. The PhD research is focused on a small area in Sydney and London, cities in the OECD. The narrow band of enquiry allows for expansion to how the technology could be deployed in a wider context. The research considers ‘the city’ as a living organism.

3 Ub Iwerks and Pat Powers, The New Car – Flip the Frog (Celebrity Prod. & (1928 Disney), 1931) <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=0wyF9nyVmNg> [accessed 9 August 2021].

4 William Dozier, Batman (1966) (Greenlawn Production, 20th Century Fox, 1966) <https://letterboxd.com/film/batman-1966/details/> [accessed 9 August 2021].

5 Alex Proyas and others, I, Robot (20th Century Fox, 2004).

6 Isaac Asimov, I, Robot, American Magazines Super Science Stories and Astounding Science Fiction (USA: Gnome Press, 1950).

7 Robert Stevenson, The Love Bug (Buena Vista, 1968).

8 Glen A Larson, ‘Knight Rider’, 1982 <http://www.knightriderarchives.com/> [accessed 9 August 2021].

9 Steven Spielberg, Minority Report (20th Century Fox, 2002).

10 William J. Mitchell, Chris E. Borroni-Bird, and Lawrence D. Burns, ‘Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century’ (Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press, 2010).

11 UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ‘Ellora Caves’, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 1983 <https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243/> [accessed 31 August 2021].

12 Sam Shamoun, ‘Legends of the Quran: Solomon’s Flying Carpet’, 2021 <https://www.answering-islam.org/Quran/Sources/Legends/flying_ carpet> [accessed 4 August 2021].

13 Emil G Hirsch and others, ‘Solomon’, Solomon (Jellinek, l.c. v. 22 et Seq. in Jewish Encyclopedia), 2018 <https://www.jewishencyclopedia. com/articles/13842-solomon> [accessed 3 August 2021]

14 Antoine Galland, One Thousand and One Nights (Paris: la Veuve Claude Barbin, 1704), 12 Volumes <https://doi.org/10.1093/oi/ authority.20110803095841203>

15 Ron Clements and John Musker, Aladdin (1992 Film) (Walt Disney, 1992) <https://aladdin-wiki.fandom.com/wiki/Aladdin_(1992_film)> [accessed 9 August 2021].

16 World Health Organization, ‘Global Status Report on Road Safety 2015’, WHO | Regional Office for Africa, 2015

17 Mathilde Carlier, ‘Global Automotive Market Size 2030’, Statista, 2021 <https://www.statista.com/statistics/574151/global-automotive-industry- revenue/> [accessed 17 August 2021].

18 Geoff Colvin, ‘Volkswagen Emissions Damages Are Still Rolling in 5 Years Later’, Fortune, 2020 <https://fortune.com/2020/10/06/ volkswagen-vw-emissions-scandal-damages/> [accessed 31 August 2021].

19 Australian Securities & Investments Commission, ‘16-417MR ASIC Action Sees BMW Finance Pay $77 Million in Australia’s Largest Consumer Credit Remediation Program’, 2016 <https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/news-centre/find-a-media-release/2016-releases/16-417mr-asic- action-sees-bmw-finance-pay-77-million-in-australia-s-largest-consumer-credit-remediation-program/> [accessed 31 August 2021].

20 Jacob Saulwick, ‘Sydney’s Patrick Terminal Goes Automated, with Fewer Staff but Dancing Robots’, Sydney Morning Herald (Sydney, Australia, 17 June 2015), section National NSW <https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/sydneys-patrick-terminal-goes-automated-with-fewer- staff-but-dancing-robots-20150617-ghqc24.html> [accessed 10 August 2021].

21 Customer Experience Division Transport for NSW, ‘Metro with Driverless Trains in Sydney’, Transportnsw.Info, 2019 <http://transportnsw. info/travel-info/ways-to-get-around/metro> [accessed 10 August 2021].

22 Western General Insurance AU, ‘Autonomous Vehicles: A New Opportunity for the Farming Industry’, Western General Insurance, 2020
<https://www.westerngeneralinsurance.com.au/autonomous-vehicles-opportunity-for-the-farming-industry/> [accessed 10 August 2021].

23 A number of universities around the world operate autonomous shuttles across campuses to transport students on private, dedicated, protected and fenced roads.

24 Paul Pryor, ‘Mining – The Risk of Autonomous Vehicles and Smart Mines’, AON Insights, 2018 <https://aoninsights.com.au/autonomous-vehicles-risk-mining/> [accessed 10 August 2021].

25 RAND Corporation, ‘Autonomous Vehicle Technology May Improve Safety for U.S. Army Convoys’, Rand Corporation, 2020 <https:// www.rand.org/news/press/2020/02/12.html> [accessed 10 August 2021]; Vincent Boulanin and Maaike Verbruggem, ‘Mapping the Development of Autonomy in Weapon Systems | SIPRI’, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2017 <https://www.sipri.org/ publications/2017/other-publications/mapping-development-autonomy-weapon-systems> [accessed 3 August 2021]

26 Bryan Pietsch, ‘2 Killed in Driverless Tesla Car Crash, Officials Say’, The New York Times, 18 April 2021, section Business <https://www. nytimes.com/2021/04/18/business/tesla-fatal-crash-texas.html> [accessed 10 August 2021].

27 Ron Schmelzer, ‘What Happens When Self-Driving Cars Kill People?’, Forbes <https://www.forbes.com/sites/cognitiveworld/2019/09/26/ what-happens-with-self-driving-cars-kill-people/> [accessed 10 August 2021].

28 Ryan Petersen, ‘The Driverless Truck Is Coming, and It’s Going to Automate Millions of Jobs’, TechCrunch, 2016 <https://techcrunch. com/2016/04/25/the-driverless-truck-is-coming-and-its-going-to-automate-millions-of-jobs/> [accessed 4 August 2021].

29 European Commission. Joint Research Centre, The Future of Road Transport : Implications of Automated, Connected, Low-Carbon and Shared Mobility, EUR (Luxembourg) (LU: Publications Office, 2019) <https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/524662> [accessed 3 August 2021].

30 Erik Eckermann, World History of the Automobile, trans. by Peter l Albrecht (USA: Pennsylvania: Warrendale: Society of Automotive Engineers, 2001) <http://library.deakin.edu.au/record=b2883582> [accessed 4 August 2021].

31 Michael Lamm, ‘The Beginning of Modern Auto Design’, The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 15 (1990), 61–77 <https://www. jstor.org/stable/1504038> [accessed 11 August 2021].

32 This refers to rhythmanalysis as proposed by Henri Lefebvre, Writings on Cities, ed. by Eleonore Kofman and Elizabeth Lebas, 1st edition (USA: Cambridge, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, 1996).

33 USA Society of Automotive Engineers, ‘J3016B: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On- Road Motor Vehicles’, SAE International, 2021 <https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_201806/> [accessed 5 August 2021].

34 In this article the theory of intergenerational justice argues that moral responsibilities and obligations apply between generations, especially in relation to environmental responsibilities, this is part of the internationally accepted sustainability principles.

35 Fleet here refers to all vehicles in the national stock.

36 Autonomous vehicle transport between the city and surrounding regions and the future of autonomous vehicles in agriculture offers these communities more flexibility and options in the future. It is likely that any revolution of this nature will occur in the city, a sociological point made by Lefebvre (2008).

37 This research suggests that a semiotic approach of human, vehicle and urban communications is the cognitive unifying element of a system that leverages both the technology and our humanity.

38 Adele Peters, ‘Inside Tesla’s 100% Renewable Design for the Gigafactory’, Fast Company, 2019 <https://www.fastcompany.com/90334858/ inside-teslas-100-renewable-design-for-the-gigafactory> [accessed 5 August 2021].

39 Mike Brown, ‘Clean Energy: Tesla’s Most Ambitious Idea May Not Be an Electric Car’, Inverse, 2021 <https://www.inverse.com/ innovation/clean-energy-tesla-quietly> [accessed 24 September 2021].

40 Chris Loader, ‘Charting Transport’, Charting Transport, 2021 <https://chartingtransport.com/> [accessed 15 September 2021].

41 Mitchell, Borroni-Bird, and Burns.

42 Lawrence D. Burns, Autonomy: The Quest to Build the Driverless Car – and How It Will Reshape Our World (UK: Williams and Collins, 2018).

43 Dale Harrow and et al., ‘Driverless Futures: Design for Acceptance and Adoption in Urban Environments’ (Royal College of Art, London., 2020), 978-1-910642-32-0 <https://researchonline.rca.ac.uk/4627/> [accessed 21 January 2021].

44 Jean-Paul Rodrigue, The Geography of Transport Systems (USA: Routledge, 2016) <https://www.routledge.com/The-Geography-of- Transport-Systems/Rodrigue/p/book/9781138669574> [accessed 5 August 2021].

45 Zia Wadud, Don MacKenzie, and Paul Leiby, ‘Help or Hindrance? The Travel, Energy and Carbon Impacts of Highly Automated Vehicles’, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 86 (2016), 1–18 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.12.001>.

46 Peter Newman and Isabella Jennings, Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems: Principles and Practices (USA: Island Press, 2008).

47 United Nations, ‘The 17 Goals for Sustainable Development’, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs; Sustainable Development, 2021 <https://sdgs.un.org/goals> [accessed 7 October 2021].

48 For research on circular economy vehicles refer also to Artur Mausbach and others, ‘Ecofitting Circular Economy: An Alternative Approach to Market, Consumption, and Design towards Zero Emissions’, in 2020 Fifteenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER) (IEEE, 2020), pp. 1–9 <https://doi.org/10.1109/EVER48776.2020.9242964>.